Paper 2025/1898 Original: eprint.iacr.org/2025/1898 ↗

Unique NIZKs and Steganography Detection

Abstract

Non-interactive zero-knowledge (NIZK) proofs tend to be randomized and there are many possible proofs for any fixed NP statement. Can we have NIZKs with only a single unique valid proof per statement? Such NIZKs are known under strong cryptographic assumptions (indistinguishability obfuscation), and are conversely known to require strong cryptographic assumptions (witness encryption). In this work, following Lepinski, Micali, and shelat (TCC '05), we consider the following relaxed notion of unique NIZKs (UNIZKs): - We only require (computationally) unique proofs for NP statements with a (computationally) unique witness; an adversary that can produce two distinct proofs must also know two distinct witnesses. - We consider NIZKs with prover setup, where a potentially malicious prover initially publishes a public key $\mathsf{pk}$ and keeps a corresponding secret key $\mathsf{sk}$, which it uses to produce arbitrarily many NIZK proofs $\pi$ in the future. While the public key $\mathsf{pk}$ is not required to be unique, once it is fixed, all the subsequent proofs $\pi$ that the prover can produce should be unique. We show that both of these relaxations are needed to avoid witness encryption. Prior work constructed such UNIZKs under the quadratic residuosity assumption, and it remained an open problem to do so under any other assumptions. Here, we give a new construction of UNIZKs under the learning with errors (LWE) assumption. We also identify and fix a subtle circularity issue in the prior work. UNIZKs are a non-interactive version of steganography-free zero-knowledge of Abdolmaleki et al. (TCC '22). As an application of UNIZKs, we get a general steganography detection mechanism that can passively monitor arbitrary functionalities to detect steganographic leakage.